James Watson and his Contributions DNA and Genetics

James Watson was born on April 6, 1928 in Chicago Illinois. He was a very gifted and bright child. He is most known for his contributions to DNA and Genetics along with his co-worker Francis Crick. Watson received his B.S. at the University of Chicago and received a Ph.D. from Indiana University. Watson also worked at the University of Cambridges Cavendish Laboratory in England. This was where he first met Francis Crick. (Bagley). As a child, his favorite question was â€Å"why?† and simple answers did not suffice. He accrued a lot of his knowledge by reading the World Almanac. He won $100 on a radio show called Quiz Kid,† and spent the money on a set of binoculars so that he could go bird watching. At the age of fifteen, he was admitted to†¦show more content†¦They published their findings in the journal â€Å"Nature.† (DNALC). Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Watson wrote, â€Å"The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA,† which was published in 1968. He wrote a textbook, â€Å"Molecular Biology of the Gene,† and he also wrote, â€Å"DNA: The Secret of Life,† which is a more recent book. (Wikipedia). In 1956, Watson took a position at Harvard University in the Biology department. His research focused on RNA and its role in the transfer of genetic information. Watson was a member of the Harvard faculty until 1976, but he took over the presidency of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in 1968. â€Å"Watson has played an important role in the development of science policy, from Cancer, through recombinant DNA, to the Human Genome Project†. He administered the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health while still leading Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory from 1988 to 1992. (DNALC). Watson’s contributions to Science are boundless. In my opinion, there is no greater contribution to society than contributing new and relevant information to the fields of DNA and Genetics. Genetics is one of the newest fields of science and its discoveries are endless. By discovering the structure of DNA, it is now clear how mutations occur and how they can be repaired. Since it DNA isShow MoreRelatedThe Characters In James Watsons The Double Helix1521 Words   |  7 Pages The Double Helix Essay In James Watson’s The Double Helix, there are four main scientists that all work towards the discovery of the double helix. These four people discovered the double helix and forever changed biology. Their names are James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins. The winners of the Nobel prize in real life were James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins. Rosalind was ineligible to receive the reward because she died prior to the award beingRead MoreCharles Crick And James Watson1122 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"A potential key to the secret of life was impossible to push out of my mind† (Watson 35). Without Crick and Watson’s development on the anatomy of DNA, the foundation for modern day knowledge on genetics and inheritance would have never existed. Francis Crick and James Watson were two scientists who discovered and deciphered the structure and different parts of DNA. Subsequently, if they never conceived the whole idea of a h uman genome, the entire maintenance of life’s code would remain a mysteryRead MoreThe Double Helix Dna ( Deoxyribonucleic Acid ) Structure1724 Words   |  7 Pagesregards to a woman, whose contributions to science have gone neglected and somewhat forgotten. A woman, who without her contribution to science we may have been set back, and not have had so many advancements in the 21st century, these contributions were credited to James Watson and Francis Crick. I am talking about no one other than Rosalind Elise Franklin, quite possibly one of the greatest minds of the last century and arguably the biggest step in to creating the double helix DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)Read MoreEssay on The Discovery Of The Structure Of DNA1526 Words   |  7 PagesJames Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA, but only by drawing on the work of many scientists who came before them. (Maddox, 2003) In 1944, Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty published  "Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types†, which was the first scientific work to identify DNA as the molecule that carried genetic information, and became a breakthrough at that time. (Avery, Macleod, McCarty, 1944) BeforeRead MoreThe Structure Of Dn Cooperation And Competition949 Words   |  4 PagesThe Structure of DNA: Cooperation and Competition PRACTICAL PROBLEM: The question â€Å"How do living things pass on their traits to offspring† had long been on the minds of researchers. CURIOSITY: Curiosity was a trait of all those who wondered about that question. Gregor Mendel was just one of those people leading up to the four who discovered the structure of DNA. The four people who discovered the structure of DNA built upon the EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY of others: At the time of this discoveryRead More Discovery of the Structure of DNA Essay2374 Words   |  10 PagesDiscovery of the Structure of DNA On the last day of February in 1953, according to James Watson, Francis Crick announced to the patrons of the Eagle Pub in Cambridge, â€Å"We have discovered the secret of life† (Watson 115, 1980). As Brian Hayes, the author of â€Å"The Invention of the Genetic Code† states, â€Å"If life ever had a secret, the double helix of DNA was surely it† (1). However, it was not the work of these two men alone that led to the discovery of the power the lies within the double helixRead MoreYu Sun Park. Dr. Murphy. Lab Section 4. Discovery Of Dna1394 Words   |  6 PagesDiscovery of DNA double helix: Related to both Scientific and Humane Aspects DNA, the molecule of life that carries genetic information in humans and almost all other organisms, has been considered as one of the greatest discoveries until now. If DNA could not have been discovered, we would not be able to do or test numerous things such as paternity test and pathological confirmation. There are four main scientists who contributed their lives, knowledge, and ambitions to find out the DNA double helixRead MoreState Lamark and Darwins Theory1727 Words   |  7 Pagesbelieved that that the neck and front limbs would progressively elongate each generation as giraffes stretched further. On the other hand, Darwin believed that genetic variation already existed with a population of organisms. Physical and chemical environmental changes or competition for resources acted as selecting agents for favourable genetic characteristics. The organisms with the genes best adapted to the environment would survive and produce offspring with those favourable traits. ConverselyRead MoreContributions Of The Structure Of Dna1683 Words   |  7 Pages Contributions to the Discovery of the Structure of DNA In the early 1950s, James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins and Erwin Chargaff had revolutionized molecular biology through their ground-breaking discoveries, which offered an astonishing view of the molecular mechanisms that underlie all lives. The structure of DNA was ultimately revealed by Watson and Crick in 1953. The specific pairings that Watson and Crick postulated allows an accurate copying mechanism for theRead More Rosalind Franklin Essay1250 Words   |  5 Pagessciences, one must give kudos to those that came before us. These are the women that paved the way for todays generation of women scientists. One such woman is Rosalind Elsie Franklin, a chemist who had a great impact on the modern day field of genetics. Rosalind was the second of five children. She was born on July 25, 1920 in London. The Franklins were an upper-class family who lived a life of luxury. Rosalind never even had to go to school - she would have been provided for from her familys

Lady Mary Wortley Montagus Turkish Embassy Letters And...

The topic of gender is a pervasive concept that has affected people and interpersonal relationships for all of history. Currently a hot topic among media and current events, the issue of gender roles was just as relevant in previous years. Over the years and throughout various cultures, the concept of gender and the roles associated with genders have changed dramatically. Now as well as in previous years people have struggled to defy the constraints placed on them due to gender norms. Sometimes, gender is viewed in a positive light and is wholly embraced. Other times, one’s gender is used as against them, shackling a person with stereotypes. The ways in which women are depicted in Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s Turkish Embassy Letters and in†¦show more content†¦Even Fatima’s maids were described to be beautiful. Lady Montagu was impressed by their beautiful belly dancing. Lady Montagu describes Fatima’s generosity, explaining how Fatima insisted she and her interpreter take fine embroidered scarves(Montagu 165). It is clear through her descriptions that Lady Montagu is enamored by the Turkish women. Perhaps, it is because she herself is a woman and has gained valuable insight into the lives of the Turkish women. It could be said that Lady Montagu favorable descriptions of the beauty of Turkish women is similar to that of the praises of Desdemona is Othello. In Othello, however, it is not a proud and glorious thing to be a woman. Shakespeare’s Othello illustrates the tragic relationship of Desdemona, a tragedy brought on by her gender. Throughout the play, it is made clear that Desdemona’s own wants do not matter. As a woman, he opinion holds no weight. In this society, Desdemona is not more than a piece of property to be own by her father or her husband; males truly hold the power. Initially, the play begins as Desdemona’s father is alerted that she is not in her room. He is informed that she is away with her husband. Desdemona’s father, upon discovering she is truly absent, goes into a panic. He expressed his disappointment that his own daughter would betray him by getting married and leaving without his knowledge. Brabantio, Desdemona’s father, expresses his disdain in her choice of husband. He is

Essay on Ant Colony - 1740 Words

BUG’S LIFE THE MOVIE In the Disney movie, A Bugs Life, there are many sociological factors that are present. First there is the difference between the leadership styles of the Queen ant, Princess Atta, and even Hopper the grasshopper. Also, the ant colony it self portrays the differences in social groups and who is looked at as a norm based on the ants perception and those who are deviant from the colony. And lastly, another sociological perspective that can be seen is the symbolic interationist perspective and the way one acts of deviance or norm and if that is based and if that behavior is biological or learned. In what follows the colony of ants will be descried and analyzed through the sociological aspects of, leadership†¦show more content†¦Since she is a queen in training she is not completely confident in her own decisions so she uses the royal council to help her in her decisions. This is portrayed in the scene in which they deliberate about Flik and whether to punish him for h is actions of dumping all the harvest food, or if they should grant his wish to go find bigger bugs to help. She seeks the advice of the council and they all give her the idea of, well if Flik goes to look he may never come back. After hearing them all she decides that yes, Flik can go out and seek help of bigger bugs to get rid of the grasshopper, which in reality it is to get rid of him. Princess Atta highly relies on her subordinates in the royal council when demonstrating her leadership abilities. Within the ant colony different sociological concepts of groups are present. The groups that can be discussed are the primary group, the in- group, and the reference group within the ant colony. The grasshoppers represent the out-group within the ant colony’s realm of socialization. Primary groups are small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring primary relationships. time spent These groups are marked by members concern for one another, shared ac tivities and culture, and long periods of together. The ant colony shows this in the bond they share together. They all work as a team to gather food and leave an offering for theShow MoreRelatedGuided Ant Colony Optimization Based Variable Neighborhood Search For Optimistic Load Balancing2031 Words   |  9 Pages GAVNS: Guided Ant Colony Optimization based Variable Neighborhood Search for Optimistic Load Balancing in Grid Computing Gurveer Kaur Brar1, Amit Chhabra2 1 Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar Punjab, India gurveer.dhillon43@gmail.com, amit.cse@gndu.ac.in Abstract Grid Computing resolves high performance computing and throughput issues through sharing of resources. These resources are heterogeneous in nature and geographically distributed to develop large scale applications. SchedulingRead More Analysis of Robert Frosts Poem, Departmental Essay742 Words   |  3 Pagesmany, â€Å"an ant on a tablecloth†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Then the ant bumps into a day drowsy moth that is much larger than him. The ant seems a tad bit jealous that the moth lacks the amount of responsibility that ants are burdened with. The ant thinks that if the moth were one of his own race he’d chastise him and send him back to work. He describes how the ant society is much more sophisticated and intellectual than the likes of the moth. Their philosophy is to learn about religion, nature, and space. The ant then beingRead MoreAnalysis of Robert Frosts Departmental Essays733 Words   |  3 Pagesmany, an ant on a tableclothÂ… Then the ant bumps into a day drowsy moth that is much larger than him. The ant seems a tad bit jealous that the moth lacks the amount of responsibility that ants are burdened with. The ant thinks that if the moth were one of his own race hed chastise him and send him back to work. He describes how the ant society is much more sophisticated and intellectual than the likes of the moth. Their philosophy is to learn about religion, nature, and space. The ant then beingRead MoreBreakpoint by Jeff Stibel: Biological Examples for Technological Advancement529 Words   |  3 PagesHarvester ants, who after 5 years reach it’s breakpoint, and continues on rather efficiently because of it’s limits. Once those five years pass the ant colony is limited to 10,000 ants, with the Queen reproducing specifically just to replace the worker ants that die off after a year. Just like neurons, all of the ants in a specific colony strive for one goal. That’s what makes the brain, and ant colonies so intelligent. Eac h neuron only has one task, but through a vast network of neurons and ants, biggerRead MoreSearch Based Software Engineering : Using Traditional Techniques1258 Words   |  6 Pagespoint search metaheuristics or trajectory methods. Population based search involves evolution of group of points in search space such as in ant colony optimization and evolutionary computation techniques. The mode of origin is another basis to distinguish between nature inspired and no nature inspired metaheuristic algorithm.. Evolutionary computation and Ant Colony Optimization belongs to the class of nature inspired whereas tabu search and iterated local search belongs to the class of non nature inspiredRead MoreThe Problem And Defining Fitness Function Essay1376 Words   |  6 Pages. Population based search involves evolution of group of points in search space such as in ant colony optimization and evolutionary computation techniques. The mode of origin is another basis to distinguish between natur e inspired and no nature inspired metaheuristic algorithm. Evolutionary computation and Ant Colony Optimization belongs to the class of nature inspired whereas tabu search and iterated local search belongs to the class of non nature inspired algorithms. Metaheuristic algorithms areRead MoreNature Inspired Metaheuristic Optimization Algorithms Essay2010 Words   |  9 Pagesnature-inspired algorithms become a current trend and is applicable to almost every area. This paper provides a wide classification of existing algorithms as the basis of future research.. This paper reviewed the existing algorithms Firefly Algorithm (FA), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Bat Algorithm (BA), Cuckoo Search (CS) and Other Nature Inspired Algorithms. However, the study reveals the existing algorithms to improve the optimization performance in different analysis. The purpose of this review and comparisonRead MoreMosquito Flying Optimization ( Mfo )1665 Words   |  7 Pagesapplications as reported b y Michalewicz[4]. There are number of meta-heuristics available till date and some of the most successful meta-heuristic algorithms include genetic algorithm (GA)[5], [6], [7], ant colony optimization [8],[9], particle swarm optimization (PSO)[10],[11], and artificial bee colony (ABC)[12] . Some of the recently proposed meta-heuristic algorithms include cuckoo search[13], [14], seven-spot ladybird optimization (SLO)[15] and bacteria foraging algorithm (BFA)[16]. These meta-heuristicRead MorePlanning a Mobile Robot in Static and Dynamic Environments1086 Words   |  4 Pagespotential field method, ant colony algorithm, genetic algorithm and so on. Artificial potential field method is suitable for underlying real-time path control with the lack of global information. But it has the problem of local path planning. Neural network method has good ability optimization of problem. But in the network structure becomes large when considering lots of obstacles or dynamic environment and the neuronal threshold value constantly changes as time goes by Ant colony algorithm can achieveRead MoreConstruction Projects Of Saudi Arabia991 Words   |  4 PagesLP/IP Hybrid method for time-cost tradeoff C. Using fuzzy multi-objective particle swarm optimization (FMOPSO) for time-cost quality tradeoff D. Stochastic construction time-cost trade-off analysis using Genetic Algorithm E. â€Å"Non-dominated Archiving Ant Colony Optimization† (NA-ACO) algorithm to model time-cost tradeoff F. Time/cost optimization using hybrid evolutionary algorithm Methods Using potential quality loss cost (PQLC) model in time–cost tradeoff through Linear Programing a. Suggested Method

United States Military Soldiers Suffer - 1404 Words

Many United States military soldiers suffer, not only from health issues, but also physical workload and finding jobs outside of the military. Many soldiers have lost limbs, and tore their bodies apart for what they believe in. A soldier sacrifices his life, his family, and his career for our life, family and careers. The sacrifices made by the soldier that gives everything up is irreplaceable and once they sign their names to that contract there is no going back. Many soldiers have health problems. On August 31, 2010 President Obama announced that operation Iraqi freedom was ended. Statistics show that 4,412 service men had died and 31,939 servicemen were injured during the course of this war (Military). In 2011 there were two†¦show more content†¦Studies have shown that 8,000 soldiers are thought to die by suicide every year, thats Twenty-two per day(Military Bonds)! A study has also shown that fourteen percent of men have contemplated suicide, while a little over five p ercent had planned it out and two and a half percent had actually attempted it one or more times. The rate of major depression is five times higher than that of an average American(Military Bonds). Post Traumatic Stress disorder is a mental health condition triggered by the result of seeing something terrifying, it makes the person experience emotional distress, loss of interest, guilt, the inability to feel pleasure they may become irritable, aggressive and may not be able to sleep at night(Veterans Statistics). PTSD can also make the person have thoughts of suicide or unwanted thoughts. PTSD can occur over time after being home from a deployment and a study shows that nine percent of military personnel have PTSD shortly after returning home from a deployment, but looking at the same troops a year later thirty-one percent had claimed to suffer from PTSD(Veterans Statistics). A study shows that between five and twenty percent have had PTSD prevalence without help, but fifty perce nt of people who seek help prevailing over the mental illness(Veterans Statistics) PTSD is the third most prevalent psychiatric

Starbucks Assessment Free Essays

Company name and brief background Starbucks is an American global coffee company which it is the largest coffeehouse company in the world. I think anybody know Starbucks that provide to enjoy the best coffee in the world. Starbuck brief background; the opening of the first Starbucks in 1970s which was small restaurant order to enjoy coffee and it was in the city of Seattle. We will write a custom essay sample on Starbucks Assessment or any similar topic only for you Order Now At the same time many people liked to drink over milk coffee and chocolate coffee, so that was more and more popular. Nowadays, Starbucks is the largest coffeehouse company in the world, with 17000 stores in 60 countries including Canada, Japan, UK, South Korea, India, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Thailand so on. The Starbucks promotion its product or services The beginning Starbucks only sold coffee and espresso drink as well as coffee bean. Nowadays, it sells hot and cold drink, coffee bean, hot and cold sandwiches, sweets, salads, snakes and items such as mugs, glass and tumblers. Also, its products are seasonal. However, it provides various services such as entertainment (music, newspaper, magazine, free internet), and offers good or quick services. How the promotion techniques used help the Starbucks to attempt to increase its sale. Well know, Starbuck is the world brand that itself have a certain visibility, so that it rarely uses advertising on television and magazine because it don’t spend a lot of money on advertising, but it used some advertisements on billboard. We find some billboard at the highway, building or station. In addition, it used short video upload on YouTube, Blog, social network ( e. g Facebook, Twitter),website. Also it is actually in the position of strength region which is the premium brand because it chooses the position in more streams of people. However, it grow into one of the world know brand. How Starbucks maintain customer loyalty Starbucks loves hearing from customer all question, comment that is always welcome while provides the experience of quality coffee and warm service. Also, it uses a various promotion different countries such as in Taiwan uses half price discount for the period. It offers fast-forward services and high quality coffee. In addition, the customer buy a Starbucks tumbler get one free drink. In Hong Kong Starbucks promotion is free internet. For example, f you buy Starbucks drinks that you use internet its shop also it offers free newspaper, magazine and comfortable environment area for the customer. It believes that many people love drinking Starbucks coffee because it twenty types of coffee so that customer can choose different taste coffee. However, more and more people like drinking Starbucks coffee. How the Trade Descriptions Act affects the way that Starbucks promotion its products and services Starbuck need to be aware of laws in every country, so that it has law for employment, health and safety regulation and product restriction. Beside Starbucks takes action to reduce waste for its operation and recycle, also it considers preserve the earth’s natural resource and enhance the quality of live around the global. In addition to, Starbucks actively seeks opportunities to minimize environment impact and help create a healthy planet, so that it takes steps to be environmental mission statement. Most importantly, it improves coffee quality in order to have commitment to origin TM that helps to improve the lives of coffee farmers and protect the environment where they grow their beans and can keep its highest-quality coffee standard. It is imperative that Starbucks understand commodity–grade coffee to be trade on a highly competitive market. Obviously, for the last several years, a global oversupply of coffee has been getting high price. So that it keeps steady price standard. Specifically, it provides in the fair trade certification system for importer, roaster, and retailers purchases coffee at favorable guaranteed price from farmers who registered with Fairtrade Labelling Organization International. Overall, I think it is a role promotion in the business which is important. Many people want to have a success on their own business, but they don’t have achievement of promotion, so that they will lose their business. On the other hand, Starbucks has a success promotion of business in the world. It is not only promotion activities, also it has supervise responsibilities, the promotes employee becomes responsible for administrative assistants and other staff. How to cite Starbucks Assessment, Papers

Language Programs free essay sample

A look at English language programs developed in three states which provide assistance to disadvantaged students. This paper examines the programs developed by three different states Florida, Texas and California to help educate students with limited English proficiency, looking at both the technical aspects of each program and the larger educational philosophy espoused by each bilingual program. The challenge of bilingual education which can also be phrased as the challenge of educating students with limited English proficiency is a complex one, for it is not a matter simply of teaching grammar and syntax, not simply a question of instilling an appreciation for nuance and vocabulary choice. For in almost every case, the students who are the subject of bilingual education come from less educationally privileged students. Those students who are not proficient in English are often poor and often immigrants and therefore in need of a variety of services, training, and education. We will write a custom essay sample on Language Programs or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They often have to learn about American culture and American legal and governmental systems as well as learning the English language. Making the challenge of bilingual education even greater, those who have grown up in poverty either in a country other than the United States or in the U.S. itself are often poorly educated in their own language. Some may not be literate in any language. In other words, they lack nearly all of the advantages of the middle-class, white, native speaker of English (Tabors 21-28).

Corporate Law Economic Reform Of Program â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Corporate Law Economic Reform Of Program? Answer: Introducation The contract that has been entered into by Bob on behalf of the company with Computer Supplies Pty Ltd for $8,000 for the delivery of ten computers is a binding contract. The general rule which is laid down in the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) is that, except otherwise contracted between the parties, where a company has more than one directors, any contract with such company can be executed only if the contract has been signed by at least two directors of the company[1]. Further it has also been held by the courts in various cases that where there are more than one directors in a company, a director of such company who is acting individually is not authorized to bind the company by virtue of his position[2]. A director cannot bind the company by his acts on behalf of the company unless he is expressly given the authority by the board to do so. But in the instant case the constitution of the company lays down that a contract of an amount more than $10,000, which has received approval of the board by a resolution passed and has been executed by at least two directors, will be binding on the company. Here, the contract which was entered into by Bob on behalf of the company with Computer Supplies Pty Ltd for delivery of ten computers was a contract for $8,000, an amount which is less than $10,000 as was required by the constitution of the company. The constitution of the company does not makes any provision regarding the contracts of amount smaller than $10,000, therefore, it is presumed that the directors had authority to act on behalf of the company for cases otherwise. Further the Corporations Act also lays down that if a third party enters into a contract with the company where there are more than one directors, the former has right to make an assumption that the latter has been authorized to act on behalf of the company and that all the requirements of the constitution and the law has been complied with[3]. Also the third party has the right to make an assumption that the director who is representing the company is duly appointed and authorized by the members of the company to make such appearance on behalf of the company[4]. In the instant case also the company is registered with the ASIC and therefore the Computer Supplies Pty Ltd has right to make an assumption that Bob was duly authorized to enter into contracts on behalf of the company. As per the observations made above it can be concluded that for the contract that was entered into by Bob on behalf of the company was a valid contract as under Section 129 he is presumed to be authorized by the company to enter into contracts with third parties and therefore, the Sunshine Scooter Art Pty Ltd is bound by the contract and the directors are advised to make payment of $8,000 on behalf of the company to the Computer Supplies Pty Ltd for the supply of ten computers made by the latter to the former. The contract that has been entered into by Bob on behalf of the company with Plastica Pty Ltd for $50,000 is not a binding contract. The reason that can be given for the conclusion is that firstly, according to the law that has been laid down in the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) except in cases where a contrary contract has been entered into by the parties, a company which has more directors than one and any contract has been entered into on behalf of such company, such contract can be enforced only if it has been signed by at least two directors of such company[5]. Further as per the rules laid down by different courts if there are more than one director in a company and a director is acting independently, he has no authority to bind the company by virtue of his position[6]. A director can bind the company by his acts only if he has been given an express authority by the board to do so. Also according to the constitution of the company in the instant case a contract of an amount more than $10,000 will be executable and binding on the company only if such contract has received approval of the board by a resolution passed for the purpose and has been signed by at least two directors of the company. Here, the contract which was entered into by Bob on behalf of the company with Plastica Pty Ltd for an amount of $50,000 was not made in accordance with the requirement of the constitution of the company as no resolution was signed by the directors to enter into any such contract and neither did Bob was given any implied or express authority for making contracts on behalf of the company. Further, it should be noted that Bob represented himself as the sole director of the company, which he was not. Section 129 of the said Act entitles a third party who is entering into a contract with the company to make an assumption with regard to the authority of a director of the said company only in case where the contract has been signed according to the provision as laid down in s ection 127. Here, in the instant case the contract has not been entered into by Bob accordingly. Therefore, on the basis of the observations made above it is concluded that the contract that was entered into by Bob on behalf of the company with Plastica Pty Ltd was not a valid contract as Bob made a misrepresentation that he was the sole director of the company and also the contract was not made in compliance with the constitution of the company. The contract with the Plastica Pty Ltd was not binding on the company and therefore neither the company, Sunshine Scooter Art Pty Ltd nor its other two directors, Jana and Adrian can be made personally liable for the act of Bob as his act was not authorized, either expressly or impliedly, and therefore he will be personally liable for his act. Superdry Holdings Ltd is the holding company of Superdry Manufacturing Ltd and Superdry Retail Stores Ltd. The board of directors of the Holdings, viz., Francis, Jack and Alice hold shares in the company in ratio of 5:3:2. The Holding holds 70% shares in the Manufacturing while 30% shares in the Stores. These three companies are considered to be group of companies by the directors. According to law a company is considered to be a subsidiary of another where the holding company holds at least 50% shares of the subsidiary company[7]. Here in this case, Holdings has 70% shares of Manufacturing while only 30% shares of the Stores, therefore, Manufacturing is a subsidiary of the Holdings but Stores cannot be said to be the subsidiary of the Holdings as the latter holds less than 50% shares in the former. The Stores is not related to the Holdings and the Manufacturing as the former is not a subsidiary of the latter companies although Manufacturing is related to the Holdings[8]. Also as per the facts of this case Stores, which has a chain of its retail stores, sells the products of the Manufacturing at reduced rates and in a recent past has also started selling products of other brands which have more demand than the Manufacturings products. According to these facts, it can be concluded that the Stores is a separate entity from Holdings and Manufacturing as when Stores started selling products of other brands, the latter did not stop them from doing so. This conduct of the latter shows that they do not have a substantial control over the day-to-day business of the Stores. Further it has also been held by court that a parent company and a subsidiary company of the former are distinct legal entities. Therefore, they are not bound by each others legal obligations[9]. From this observation of the court, it can be suggested that the decision made in the meeting of the Board of Directors of Stores, where the Stores is required to provide guarantee to the Finance B ank of the debts of Holdings and Manufacturing, is not bound to give such guarantee as has been held above that a company is not bound by the legal obligations of the other even if it is a subsidiary company of the other. In the instant case, the directors of the Holdings are personally liable for the debts accruing to the Financial Bank. They cannot make Stores bound by their legal obligation as Stores is a separate legal entity distinct from the Holdings and the Manufacturing. Further, the decision made by the Directors in the Board meeting is in contravention of the directors duty under law[10]. The directors of a company are under a legal obligation not to take advantage of their position or cause disadvantage to the company[11]. Also the Business Judgment Rule which is intended to evade needless limitations on appropriate business activities has also been laid down in the Corporations Act 2001. According to the rule a director should make a proper business judgment which requires care and diligence on his part while making such judgment. A judgment is said to be made carefully and diligently when it is made with bona fide intention for an appropriate purpose and should not have a substantial interest in the issue of the judgment. Further the judgment shall also be made in the interest of the company[12]. The basic objective of the rule is to prevent the directors of the company from exercising their powers arbitrarily and not to shield them from their l iability. It has been held by court that the duty that has been imposed under section 182 is not made to ensure obedience to the requirements of the provisions of the law rather to avoid the directors from taking advantage of their authority for their personal interest[13]. The directors cannot delegate their responsibilities to other members of the company[14]. The directors of Holdings cannot escape from their liability towards the company and the Financial Bank by making the Stores the guarantor for the overdraft facility to the Financial Bank. They are bound by the obligations by the virtue of their position. The directors have no right to give away their obligations their subsidiary company which is not even their subsidiary company. It may be observed that the directors have acted in contravention of their general duties under section 182 of the Corporation Act which invites the civil penalty under section 1317E. The court upon being satisfied that the director has acted in contravention of the civil penalty provision, it will declare that such contravention has taken place. Upon declaration the Australian Securities and Investments Commission will be entitled to get an order for pecuniary penalty under section 1317G or an order for disqualification under section 206C. Therefore it is advised to Karen, the non- executive director of Stores that the three directors of the Holdings for failing to carry out their general duties and thereby contravening the provisions of Corporations Act. The directors want to avoid their personal liability as against the Financial Bank by making the Stores guarantor for their overdue debts and the overdraft facilities. The Stores is not a part of the Holdings or the Manufacturing rather it does not even form part of the group of the company as given under section 50 of the Corporations Act 2001. The Store has a separate legal entity as distinguished from the Holding and the Manufacturing and therefore it cannot be bound by the decisions of the Holdings. The duties of the directors as discussed here above are their equitable duties whereby they have duties of loyalty and to act carefully and diligently while acting on behalf of the company. Under these duties the directors are required not to act arbitrarily while exercising their discretion. The contravention of these duties on the part of the directors will invite penalty to be imposed on such directors. Reference List: ASIC v Maxwell (2006) NSWSC 1052. Australian Insitute of Company Directors, General Duties of Directors, (2013) https://aicd.companydirectors.com.au/resources/all-sectors/roles-duties-and-responsibilities/general-duties-of-directors. Brick Pipe Industries Ltd v Occidental Life Nominees Pty Ltd (1992) 10 ACLC 253. Chandler v Cape Plc (2012) EWCA Civ 525. Corporations Act 2001 (Cth). Corporate Law Economic Reform Program, Directors Duties and Corporate Governance: Facilitating innovation and protecting investors, (1997) Commonwealth of Australia https://archive.treasury.gov.au/documents/283/PDF/full.pdf. Northside Developments v Registrar General (1990) HCA 32. Queensland Government, Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) (the Corporations Act), (2016) Department of the Premier and Cabinet. From https://www.premiers.qld.gov.au/publications/categories/policies-and-codes/handbooks/welcome-aboard/member-duties/corp-act-2001-c.aspx.